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DOI: https://doi.org/10.15507/1991-9468.26303.442-460

UDC 159.937.52:316.6

 

Spatial Reasoning as a Predictor of Mathematical Performance: Evidence from a Gender-Based Analysis

Siti Maryatul Kiptiyah
S.Si., S.Pd., M.Pd., Doctoral Student in Elementary Education, Member of Literacy and Numeracy Center of Excellence, Yogyakarta State University (1 Colombo St., Yogyakarta 55281, Indonesia), ORCID: https://orcid.org/0009-0006-4879-9394, Scopus ID: 57216225701, This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.

Yoppy Wahyu Purnomo
M.Pd., Professor of Elementary Teacher Education of the Department of Primary Education, Leader of Literacy and Numeracy Center of Excellence, Yogyakarta State University (1 Colombo St., Yogyakarta 55281, Indonesia), ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6216-3855, Scopus ID: 56311092100, This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.

Ucu Sumisiani
S.Pd., Student of the Mathematics Education Study Program, Muhammadiyah University of Prof. Dr. Hamka (2 Limau St., Jakarta, Indonesia), ORCID: https://orcid.org/0009-0006-1717-7496, This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.

Gunawan
M.Pd., Member of Literacy and Numeracy Center of Excellence, Yogyakarta State University (1 Colombo St., Yogyakarta 55281, Indonesia), Lecturer of Mathematics Education Study Program, State Islamic University of Salatiga (KM. 2 Lingkar Selatan St., Salatiga 50714, Indonesia), ORCID: https://orcid.org/0009-0005-0324-4160, Scopus ID: 58579420600, This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.

Abstract
Introduction. Spatial reasoning is a critical cognitive factor supporting visualization, diagram interpretation, and mathematical problem-solving. However, its predictive contribution and gender-related patterns remain insufficiently understood among secondary school students. This study aims to examine the predictive relationship between spatial reasoning and mathematical performance and to investigate gender differences across both variables.
Materials and Methods. A cross sectional survey design was employed involving 437 students selected from a population of 789 students at a public school in Jakarta. The study utilized two validated instruments: a spatial reasoning test and a mathematical performance test. Data analysis included simple linear regression to determine the extent to which spatial reasoning predicts mathematical performance, and an independent-samples t-test to analyze gender differences in both domains.
Results. Spatial reasoning significantly predicted mathematical performance, indicating that students with stronger spatial reasoning tended to demonstrate better mathematical performance. A statistically significant gender difference was found in spatial reasoning, with male students obtaining higher scores than female students. In contrast, no statistically significant gender difference was found in mathematical performance. Overall, the findings show that spatial reasoning was significantly associated with mathematical performance, whereas gender differences were observed in spatial reasoning but not in mathematical performance.
Conclusion. The findings indicate that spatial reasoning is a statistically significant but modest predictor of mathematical performance. The observed gender difference in spatial reasoning, together with the absence of a corresponding difference in mathematical performance, suggests that spatial reasoning should be supported through equitable instructional opportunities rather than interpreted as a fixed gender-related attribute.

Keywords: spatial reasoning, mathematical performance, gender differences, predictive analysis, spatial visualization, secondary school students

Funding: This research was funded by the Indonesian Education Scholarship, administered by the Center for Higher Education Funding and Assessment, and supported by the Indonesian Endowment Fund for Education, Ministry of Finance of the Republic of Indonesia.

Conflict of interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

For citation: Kiptiyah S.M., Purnomo Y.W., Sumisiani U., Gunawan. Spatial Reasoning as a Predictor of Mathematical Performance: Evidence from a Gender-Based Analysis. Integration of Education. 2026;30(3):442–460. https://doi.org/10.15507/1991-9468.26303.442-460

Authors’ contribution:
S. M. Kiptiyah – formulation of research goals and aims; conducting a research and investigation process; application of formal techniques to analyse study data; specifically writing the initial draft.
Y. W. Purnomo – formulation of research goals and aims; development of methodology; oversight and leadership responsibility for the research activity planning and execution; specifically critical review.
U. Sumisiani – application of formal techniques to analyse study data; specifically critical review.
Gunawan – conducting a research and investigation process; verification of the overall reproducibility of results and other research outputs; specifically critical review.

Availability of data and materials. The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are available from the authors on reasonable request.

All authors have read and approved the final manuscript.

Submitted 07.02.2026;
revised 28.04.2026;
accepted 05.05.2026.

 

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